How to do Trigonometric Surveying
Geodetic or trigonometrically surveying takes into account the curvature of earth Since very extensive areas and very large distances are involved. In geodetic surveying highly refined instruments and methods are used. Geodetic work is undertaken by the state agency e.g. survey of Pakistan undertaken by the state agency. The object of geodetic surveying is to
Method of Surveying a River & Sounding
The survey of the shore line of a river is made by running a theodolite and tape traverse on a shore at a convenient distance form the edge of the water. If the river is narrow, a single theodolite and tape traverse is on one bank and both banks. Located by staid or plane table methods. If the river is wide, it is necessary to run traverses on both banks and locate each shore
How to Establish controls in Hydrographic Surveying
In an extensive survey, the primary horizontal control is established primary horizontal control secondary once by running theodolite and tape traverse b/r the triangulation station, the traverse lines being run to following the shore lines approx. in survey of less extent the primer horizontal, control only is required and is established by running a theodolite and tapeFactors Affecting Construction of Tunnels
Tunnels are constructed To avoid the expensive acquisition of valuable built up land, tearing up pavements and holding up traffic for long periods in large cities. When the depth of ordinary cutting exceeds 20m and the ground rises rapidly for a considerable distance after wards. To avoid the excessive cost of maintenance of an open cut subjected to land slides or snow
Turbidity of Water sample Using Nephelometric Method
Water is said to turbid when it is seen containing materials of suspension inside it. While turbidity may be defined as the measure of visible material in suspension in water, turbidity may be caused by algae or other organisms. It is generally caused by silt or clay. The amount and character of turbidity depends upon two things: Type of soil over which flows, The velocity ofDetermination of Suspended Solids in Water
The total dissolved solids mainly consist of the test that acts as a check on detailed analysis. Another useful aspect is that electric conductivity can be continuously recorded. Any sudden change indicate a change of water. A treatment method can be there fore instantly detected. Determination of total solids is used in two operations. In developing a potential source
Sieve Analysis & Particle Size Analysis
The grain size characteristics of soils that are predominantly coarse grained are evaluated by a sieve analysis. A nest of sieves is prepared by stacking test sieves one above the other with the largest opening at the top followed by sieves of successively smaller openings and a catch pan at the bottom. Opening mesh sizes of commonly used sieves are shown in table
Tests Applied on Concrete for Strength and Workability
SAMPLING The first step is to take a test sample from the large batch of concrete. This should be done as soon as discharge of the concrete commences. The sample should be representative of the concrete supplied. The sample is taken in one of two ways: For purposes of accepting or rejecting the load: Sampling after 0.2 m3 of the load has been poured. For routine
How to Write Technical Construction Proposal
A document which persuades its readers to accept the writer's idea is called a proposal. The RFP asks for both a technical proposal and a cost proposal. There are two kinds of proposals. In external proposal, one firm responds to a request from another firm on the government for a solution to a problem. It ranges from lengthy (100 pages or more) to a short (4-5 pages). In anHow Precipitation Occurs
Precipitation takes place when a body of moisture cools sufficiently for it to become saturated in water droplets and ice crystals, upon condensation. Air may be cooled in a number of ways i.e. By meeting of air masses of different temperature. By coming into contact with a cold object such as ground (mountains). The most important mechanism is uplift of air, as airHow to Measure Rainfall / Precipitation
All the forms of precipitation are measure on the basis of vertical depth of water that would accumulate on a level surface of precipitation remained where it fell. In metric system precipitation is measure in millimeters and tenths. Any open receptacle with vertical side can be used as a gauges for measuring rainfall. These refined receptacles with vertical side can be
Estimation and Analysis of Missing Precipitation Data
Some precipitation stations may have short breaks in the records because of absence of the observer or because of instrumental failures. It is often necessary to estimate this missing record.How to Design Barrage
The Barrage and the Head Regulators of feeder channels and appurtenant structures will be designed on the basis of standard design criteria established for other barrages and allied structures, already constructed on the Indus River and its tributaries.
